Music and Dance of the Bukidnon of Mindanao - A Short Introduction

by Hans Brandeis   1993 Filipino Association of Berlin Published by Filipino Association of Berlin e.V. (FAB).  Supported by Internationales Institut für Traditionelle Musik e.V. (IITM)  Copyright 1993 by the author.  All rights reserved.  Text, translation, photographs, layout, typesetting by Hans Brandeis.  HTML conversion 1995 by Johann Stockinger  Redesigned and updated 1999 by Hans Brandeis Viewing the videos presented on this page requires RealPlayer G2 which can be downloaded by clicking on the icon below: Table of Contents Ethnographic Orientation Vocal Music in General The Epic Chants Music and Ceremonies Other Types of Vocal Music Musical Instruments in General Musical Instruments for Individual Use Musical Instruments for Social Use Other Musical Instruments Dances and Dance Rhythms Closing Remarks Notes About the Sources Materials for Further Reading Discography About the Author Contact Addresses Ethnographic Orientation The Bukidnon are one of the traditionalistic ethnic groups in the southern Philippines. They inhabit the north-eastern part of Mindanao, the second largest island of the archipelago, especially the remote mountainous regions of Bukidnon province and the neighboring provinces. There is no connection with the Bukidnon on the island of Panay in the central Philippines. The term “Bukidnon” (“mountain dweller”) derives from the Cebuano language but nowadays, it is accepted by most members of the ethnic group referred to. The old term recorded by Fay-Cooper Cole in 1915 (1956:5), which was used by the people themselves is “Higaónon” (from the word “gaun”,“to remove from fire or water”).

Click on picture for full-sized view (21 kB) Illus. 1: Distribution area of the Bukidnon subgroup (Llamzon 1978:116).

The Bukidnon comprise four subgroups which, roughly speaking, occupy the following areas:  [1] the people of the Bukidnon subgroup live in northeastern Bukidnon province (Illus. 1),  [2] the Talaandig in northwestern Bukidnon,  [3] the Higaonon in Misamis Oriental and in parts of Agusan del Norte,  [4] the Banwaon in parts of Agusan del Sur between the Agusan river and the borderline towards Bukidnon.  An ethnic group culturally closely related to and neighboring the Banwaon and Bukidnon but with many features of Manobo culture is the Umayamnon people living along the Umayam River at the boundary of Agusan del Sur and Bukidnon. The language of the Bukidnon groups, called Binukid, is one of 15 Manobo languages, which form a subgroup of the Malayo-Polynesian or Austronesian family of languages.  Nowadays, many Bukidnon are still inhabiting their traditional houses on piles made out of wood and bamboo. They cultivate rice, corn, sweet potatoes, squash, beans, taro, coffee and other useful plants in slash and burn agriculture. Besides, men go hunting for wild pigs and birds in those few areas that are still covered by rain forest. [Up to now, the best general overview about the traditional culture of the Bukidnon presenting data from the year 1910 is offered in the work of Fay-Cooper Cole (1956).] During the past decades, a great number of Christian Filipinos, most of them coming from the Visayan Islands, have immigrated to Mindanao. As a consequence, even in remote mountainous areas, the local Bukidnon are often outnumbered by their Christian neighbors.  Despite some minor regional differences, the musical cultures of the Bukidnon subgroups show a high degree of homogeneity. In border areas, they seem to be influenced by the adjacient music cultures: Agusan Manobo in the east, Umayamnon, Tigwa and Matigsalug Manobo in the southeast, Maranao in the west, and Western Bukidnon Manobo in the southwest. The present paper tries to define and explain the indigenous terms for musical genres, dances and musical instruments of the Bukidnon in connection with their social context, whereas the music will only be dealt with peripherally.    Vocal Music in General The most important means of musical expression of the Bukidnon is vocal music. As a rule, a male or female solo singer performs without the accompaniment of any musical instrument. The only exception is the collective singing of women called tabúk during the kaligà ceremonies. The most important types of vocal music are the epic chants collectively called ulagíng and the chants and prayers connected with the kaligà ceremonies. Also widely used are the improvised songs limbay and the song-speeches dasang of the Banwaon, Bukidnon and Higaunen subgroups, the improvised salâ of the Talaandig and, to a certain extent, the ballads idangdang. Other song types are only of minor or of merely regional importance.  At this point, it has to be stressed that the names of song types as given by the Bukidnon actually refer to categories of function based on text content and less to categories based on musical characteristics. It might, for example, happen that a kaligà or ulagíng melody is used for a salâ performance. But even these categories of function are only vaguely defined, and abstract or general terms like “music”, “musical instrument”, “song”, etc., are lacking in the Binukid language. The word which comes closest in meaning to the word “melody” is lageng (“[sound of the] voice”).  In most song performances, the same pentatonic melody is repeated over and over again with some variations, sometimes alternating with one or two additional melodies. The performances often start with a typical melismatic phrase sung on a very high pitch and at highest possible volume. There are melodies in a rubato style as well as strictly metered ones. The melodic patterns vary in length. Some of them are clearly divided in two distinct parts often separated by a breathing break.  All important singing performances start with a special introductory part called pamadà (pamarà), in which the singer invokes his guiding spirits (collectively called Tumanud or Dengan; singers are usually guided by Mulin-ulin) and also asks his voice (lageng) for cooperation and assistance. In fact, to sing in traditional Bukidnon style is a difficult task because it requires the use of an archaic form of the Binukid language which modern Binukid speakers cannot understand and, therefore, have to learn before being able to sing. The poetic form is composed of verses, whereby the statement of every line has to be repeated with other words, preferably with synonyms, in a second line. This poetic device is called sambal (“doubling lines”, verb form pasámbalâ), the poetic form sangen-sangen.     The Epic Chants The ulagíng epic, which recalls the adventures of the main hero Agyu and his brothers and sisters, is sung at night time for at least some hours, in some cases up to several nights. In performing the ulagíng, the Talaandig use three different singing styles which are all influenced by specific guiding spirits: the aggressive, syllabic ulagíng or umanen style, the more contemplative, melismatic nánangen style, and the ilangiten style (from the word langit, “highest heaven”) with sustained, high-pitched tones.  In the Talaandig area, a second singer, sometimes the epic singer himself or herself, will intersperse the ulagíng with performances of another song type called salâ which, in a contemplative way, usually deals with philosophic considerations. Besides its connection with the ulagíng, the salâ is an important vocal genre in its own right (see below).    Music and Ceremonies All ceremonies of the Bukidnon consist of two main parts, each characterized by a prayer (pandalawit). In the first prayer, the deities (collectively called Tinuuhan or Diwata) are invited to join the celebration. After this, the sacrificial animals, usually several chickens and a pig (called by the priests “the chicken with only one tail-feather”) are killed. In the second prayer, after the preparation of the offerings, the deities are invited to accept the offerings, and the requests of the celebrant and his family (for which the ceremony is performed) are expressed. Usually, the pandalawit prayers are plainly spoken in a solemn way; in those regions, however, where the song-speech called dasang (see below) is found, they might also be performed in this special manner. The best-known Bukidnon ceremony of this type is the community ceremony pangampû which is usually celebrated annually shortly before or after New Year (Illus. 6 and Illus. 7). (Many more details about the pangampû ceremony are given on my web page“Photographs of Mindanao, Philippines: Rituals and Ceremonies”).

Click on picture for full-sized view (44 kB) Illus. 2: Datu Makatondog. Tagbalili, Esperanza, Agusan del Sur.

In the elaborate kaligà ceremonies, this basic ritual pattern is extended by the employment of three different song types, kaligà, tabúk and awit, as well as the ceremonial dance dugsû and the use of the hanging xylophone dagingen and of the agung. The kaligà ceremonies always address specific deities that were assigned the responsibility of taking care of the activities and needs of man by the supreme God (Magbabayà). Therefore, the ceremonies always serve a well-defined practical purpose. The most important kaligà ceremonies are collectively called panagulambung (from lambung, “to overcast”). These include Tagulambung hu Datu and Tagulambung kanin Baylan for the reinforcement of datu (“community leader”, “noble man”, “man with authority and competence”; cp. (Illus. 2)) and baylan (“priest”) powers, Tagulambung hu Pamamahandi for the improvement of the economic situation, Tagulambung hu Ibabasúk for success in agriculture, especially in cultivating rice, and Tagulambung hu Dengan for improving the relationship with the personal guardian spirits, to name just some examples. In addition to the specific purposes involved, the aspect of healing sickness is also always connected with kaligà ceremonies because the occurrence of sickness is often attributed to the neglect of regularly performing these ceremonies.

Click on picture for full-sized view (63 kB) Illus. 3: Use of gongs (agung) during a kaligà ceremony. Guilang- Guilang, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon. Click on picture for full-sized view (86 kB) Illus. 4: Ceremonial dance dugsû of the women. Bantuanon, Lantapan, Bukidnon.

In the kaligà ceremonies, the pandalawit prayers retain their role as the basic parts of the ritual. Among the Bukidnon subgroup (in Guilang-Guilang), beating of two small agung during the main collective prayer of all ritualists present was observed whenever a new name of an invoked deity was mentioned (Illus. 3).  In addition to the prayers, the most important performances of the higher ceremonies are the kaligà chants that are also called pamamayúk, the solo chanting of the attending priests (baylan) who take turns in performing. Each kaligà chant should be announced to the higher deities by beating the so-called kinulintang rhythm on the dagingen, a two-bar xylophone (see below). This instrument is believed to be the dwelling place of the Dagingen deities who, by playing the instrument, are asked to serve as messengers towards the higher deities.  Each kaligà is followed by an answering tabúk sung heterophonically by a group of women. There are two types of tabúk: the repeated singing of highly melismatic melodies using an intelligible text (hagalhagal) and the singing of high-pitched, sustained sounds underlying meaningless syllables (sagyawan or sinagyawan).After the tabúk, the women usually dance the ceremonial dance dugsû (dinugsû) in a half-circle around the altar (bangkasu) while holding hands (Illus. 4, Illus. 4-A, Video 1).  Sometimes, the dancing women are joined by some men, whose performance is usually welcomed by the watchers with amused laughter. The dugsû, which consists of several parts with different names and step sequences, is performed to the sounds of the stamping, kicking and sliding feet of the women on the ground, usually the bamboo floor of a house, which, apart from the rattling of brass bracelets (sandak) and anklets (singgil) and small bells (saliyaw and lingkit) fixed to necklaces (salay) and belts (palakut), serves as the only musical accompaniment (Illus. 5).

Click on picture for full-sized view (42 kB) Illus. 4-A: Ceremonial dance of the women dugsû.Guilang-Guilang, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon. Click on picture for full-sized view (31 kB) Illus. 5: Bracelet (sandak) and necklace (salay). Guilang-Guilang, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon.

The dugsû can be considered the only cultural tradition of the Bukidnon which, to a limited degree, became known among urban Filipinos who are interested in folklore. However, some misconceptions about it seem to prevail, especially with folk dance groups: the dugsû is neither a thanksgiving dance (compare Alejandro 1978:151,159; Bayanihan 1987:38; Villacruz 1989:5) nor a dance for a god of fire (as implied by Obusan 1990), nor is it restricted to certain occasions such as harvest time or the birth of a male heir (compare Alejandro 1978:159; Goquingco 1980:146). It actually does not have any specific religious or magic implications. It is merely entertainment for the deities, to make them feel more comfortable during the fiesta that has been organized for them and consequently more open to the requests of the celebrants. Therefore, the dugsû should be performed during every kaligà ceremony but it is not a religious  “must”. The lagudas which Obusan considers a “rice and corn ritual performed by the Higaonons of Misamis Oriental” (1988) is actually one part of the dugsû, according to informants. In this respect, it should be mentioned that the Western Bukidnon Manobo perform a dance called legudas during their healing ceremony keligaan (Polenda 1989:139), which seems to correspond to the Bukidnon dugsû.

Click on icon for downloading Video 1: Performance of the dugsû by six girls. Songco, Lantapan, Bukidnon. Excerpt of 31 seconds in REAL VIDEO format. File size: 870 kB. As there is no musical accompaniment for the dugsû and because there was a very strong background noise in the video recording, the sound was left out in the video clip presented here.

Click on picture for full-sized view (62 kB) Illus. 6: The baylan calls for the community ceremony pangampû using an agung. Kalasungay, Malaybalay, Bukidnon. Click on picture for full-sized view (71 kB) Illus. 7: Community ceremony pangampû. Bantuanon, Lantapan, Bukidnon.

Twice during the kaligà ceremony, the singing of the awit is performed: the officiating priest will sing short verbal and melodic phrases which are repeated by his assistent. During many kaligà ceremonies, these parts are omitted, however. At the climaxes of a kaligà ceremony, the reception and the parting of the invited deities, it might happen that the present men and women will sing several kaligà and tabúk as well as dance the dugsû simultaneously but musically completely independent from each other. These moments represent the most important collective activities of the Bukidnon not only in the ceremonial but also in the musical field. Restricted to some settlements in the Talaandig territory are a number of song types which are not necessarily sung in the ceremonial context but nevertheless clearly show religious implications. In the panganinay song (“asking for help [through prayer]”), the divine beings are asked for spiritual salvation, and by singing the panlibay (“to entertain, to pray”) or panggana (“to entertain, to inspire”), the singers attempt to please the deities. These song types sometimes use melodies of other song types: especially salâ melodies which are considered appropriate because of the basically philosophic content of the salâ (see below), or ulagíng melodies of the calm nánangen style if, for example, reference is made to the immortalized humans of the ulagíng epic. Related to the panganinay is the panlalawag of the Talaandig asking Lalawag, the god of the wild honey bees, for help before going to collect honey.  The Talaandig term panlibay also refers to lullabies which are meant to entertain a child and to make it feel comfortable while falling asleep. (In some other Bukidnon areas, lullabies are usually classified as belonging to the limbay song type; see below.) In this sense, the malingka song for entertaining the Malingka spirit also belongs to the panlibay category in combining both meanings of the word, “praying” and “entertaining”: Malingka was the son of Deganluyan, the sister of Agyu. When Agyu and his followers were brought to heaven during the process of immortalization, the newborn baby boy Malingka fell down into the sea. After being saved from drowning by the deities of the water (Bulalakaw), he was made the head of the agricultural deities (Ibabasúk). For this reason, the Talaandig sometimes include the malingka song into the kaligà ceremonies for the Ibabasúk deities. Similar to the kaligà songs, the malingka too can be sung simultaneously by several men.

Click on picture for full-sized view (66 kB) Illus. 8: Beating the binaylan rhythm on the rim of a gong (agung). Tagbalili, Esperanza, Agusan del Sur. Click on picture for full-sized view (52 kB) Illus. 9: Binaylan dance. Tagbalili, Esperanza, Agusan del Sur.

Other Types of Vocal Music The most popular song type of the Banwaon, Higaunen and Bukidnon subgroups certainly is the limbay, an improvised song about the personal feelings of the singer, usually reflecting the present situation or experiences of the past. Subtypes of the limbay are the man-inaday expressing sadness and depression as well as the hulû-hulû (“to relate tearfully”) of the Bukidnon subgroup and the pangangandê (also pangandê or pangalut-alut,“to crave [s.th.], to desire very much”) of the Higaonon in Misamis Oriental, with a similar content. The dindinay of the Higaonon and dindin of the Bukidnon subgroup were given their names because of the repeated use of the syllables “dindinay” or “dindin” for poetic reasons (also see below, idangdang). The Banwaon call their lullabies limbay, sometimes also using the term panlibay for this function. Similar to the limbay in melody and content is the darinday, which is restricted to the area of those Higaonon living close to the Maranao people.  Among the Talaandig, the song type corresponding the closest to the limbay is the salâ. Its usually low-pitched melodies are sung in a relaxed manner, giving it a more serious nature compared to the limbay which is sometimes sung in a rather excited manner with a loud, high-pitched voice. The salâ too has a number of subtypes: the salâ ha tanud (“observing salâ song”) about happenings in the past, the kagmayugen (from mayugen, “difficult”) which refers to suicide and the melody of which is believed to attract death, and the panghulû-hulû, which is similar in content to the limbay subtype hulû-hulû. Beside these, there are still other terms for subtypes of the salâ like pangulahit, panegyet and others whose meanings have not yet been clarified. Among the Higaunen subgroup around Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the term salâ is sometimes also used for courtship songs said to be sung alternately by a man and a woman.  Another song type of wide distribution in all Bukidnon areas but much less often performed than the limbay and salâ is the idangdang. Among the Banwaon, the simple-structured idangdang is nowadays only favored by the older folks, while young people prefer the variety of the limbay. There are several definitions of the term idangdang: according to the most prevalent definition, it is a kind of ballad relating the story of some past event; among the Banwaon, the term is used for sung debates performed alternately by different singers; it sometimes also refers to a special limbay, in which the word “idangdang” is repeated for merely poetic reasons (compare above, dindinay), or even to lullabies among the Bukidnon subgroup near Malaybalay.  The Talaandig use two types of corresponding war songs: the sagyawan, the shout of victory of warriors returning from battle, and the anì, welcoming the victorious men back home. These two song types must not be sung out of context and, therefore, are still undocumented. The sagyawan is said to consist of high-pitched, sustained sounds underlying meaningless syllables, probably in a similar manner as the tabúk style of the same name (see above).  The definition of another song type called bayek-bayek obviously refers, aside from text content, more to lyric than to musical form. There is a variety of forms spanning from plainly spoken recitations of rhythmic poetry and performances of song-speech to completely sung verses. In any case, the very relaxed singing style of the bayek-bayek is very different from the other song types: the pitch always remains close to the spoken range, and, as a general rule, there are no melismatic passages. The texts are often meant as a polite way of addressing a person regarding some sensitive issue which would create embarrassment if expressed in plain words; some other texts may contain funny sayings. The bayek-bayek is a rare type of oral tradition which can be found in the area of the Higaonon, less in the territory of the Bukidnon subgroup.  In the Banwaon, Bukidnon and Higaunen areas, the political leaders (datu) employ a special manner of communicating with each other, a kind of song-speech called dasang (“to talk with a loud voice”) or sometimes dinatu (“the way of the datu”). Performed for the purpose of welcoming visitors, it is also called pangagdâ. There are mainly two styles of dasang: [1] loud rhythmic talking while remaining on one steady pitch-level; [2] this might shift to the second style consisting of speaking while using an underlying rhythmic and quasi- melodic pattern of several unspecific but discreet pitches that is constantly repeated. Only datus are allowed to use dasang, usually to express their personal views on political matters and to boast about their personal qualities and talents as proven by their past exploits. During assemblies of datus, the performances of dasang usually develop into boasting contests aimed at winning prestige and at redetermining the order of rank among the present political leaders. During wedding ceremonies, datus representing the families of the groom and the bride will negotiate in a similar, boasting way by stressing the merits and virtues of the involved parties.    Musical Instruments in General The Bukidnon use a variety of musical instruments, most of which are widely distributed all over Mindanao, often even identical in construction and shape. Musical instruments can rarely be found today because once they are destroyed, there seems to be little interest among the Bukidnon to rebuild them.  Almost all of the Bukidnon instruments are played solo. The rare exception is the combination of drum and gong for the accompaniment of some dances. In any case, there is no singing to the accompaniment of musical instruments. Regarding their function in society, there are basically two groups of musical instruments: [1] those for individual use, i.e., for enjoying leisure time, for courting, etc., and [2] those for social use, i.e., during social gatherings (kaamulan) of the family or of the whole village community.

Click on picture for full-sized view (58 kB) Illus. 10: Playing the boat lute kutiyapi. Iponan, Balungkud, Dansulihon, Misamis Oriental.

Musical Instruments for Individual Use Belonging to the instruments for personal or individual use, the LONG LUTE is technologically the most complicated instrument of the Bukidnon. It comes in three different versions:  [1] The first type has a resonating chamber shaped like an extended, squared box and is similar to the kudlongan lute found in Palawan; it is found among all the Bukidnon subgroups and is usually called piyapì; in some places where the Talaandig live, however, it is called katiyapì.  [2] In the west, close to the territory of the Islamic Maranao, there is a second type called kutiyapì with a different shape, a gently curved body that resembles a boat (Illus. 10,  11, 12, 13).  [3] In some Banwaon areas, a third, smaller type of lute called kudlung is said to be used, which seems to be similar to the kuglung of the Matigsalug Manobo of southeastern Bukidnon; if so, its shape would represent a mixture of the above-mentioned types: where the resonating box is connected to the neck, it shows the curved shape of the kutiyapì, while the lower end of the resonating box has the squared shape of the piyapì.

Click on picture for full-sized view (48 kB) Illus. 11: Head of the boat lute kutiyapi.

Click on picture for full-sized view (48 kB) Illus. 12: Frets of the kutiyapi made out of bee's wax.

Click on picture for full-sized view (37 kB) Illus. 13: Attachment of the strings of the kutiyapi with underlying strip of rattan.

Click on picture for full-sized view (45 kB) Illus. 14: Spike fiddle dayuday. Claveria, Misamis Oriental

Most of these lutes are said to represent a crocodile (buaya) or a big lizard (called ibid if living in the river, palaes if living in the forest) which the Bukidnon consider a small crocodile. They all have two strings, one of which is a drone string. The frets are usually made out of black bee’s wax topped by inserted pieces of wood or horn of the water buffalo (Illus. 12). The lutes are played by means of a plectrum consisting of a small rattan strip tied to one finger with a thread of abaka hemp fixed to it. (For additional information and for an animated sequence of pictures [147 kB] click here.)  The dayuday (dayuray) is a spike fiddle with only one string (Illus. 14 and Illus. 15). The Banwaon adopted the name kugut from the identical instrument of the neighboring Agusan Manobo. The body of the instrument is made from one half of a coconut shell, the open end of which is covered with snake skin or pig's bladder. A bamboo strip is pierced through two holes in the coconut shell with one half sticking out; this projecting half is then inserted into a thin bamboo stick which serves as the neck (Illus. 15). The bow is also made out of a bamboo strip. The string of the dayuday is made of abaka hemp or from a purchased guitar steel string, the bow’s string of abaka. (Another two pictures of Bukidnon women playing the dayuday can be seen by clicking here.)

Click on picture for full-sized view (49 kB) Illus. 15: Back of the spike fiddle dayuday with neck taken off. Guilang-Guilang, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon. Click on picture for full-sized view (57 kB) Illus. 16: Datu Kinulintang dances with an idiochord tube zither takumbê. Songco, Lantapan, Bukidnon. Click on picture for full-sized view (26 kB) Illus. 17: Idiochord tube zither takumbê of the Agusan Manobo. (Collection Linda Burton)

IDIOCHORD TUBE ZITHERS are only of minor importance for the Bukidnon. The takumbê (Illus. 16 and Illus. 17) is made out of a bamboo tube with nodes retained at both ends. It has two strings carved out from the bamboo surface which are not more than 4-5 cm apart from each other. At both ends of these strings, small bamboo pieces are inserted, which elevate the strings from the surface of the bamboo tube, thus serving as bridges. In the middle of the strings, a flat piece of wood or bamboo, sometimes in the shape of a trapezoid, is clamped between the strings so that it can vibrate freely, together with the strings forming an increased joint mass. Below this wooden platform, a resonating hole, often of rectangular shape, is cut into the bamboo tube. Another resonating hole is cut through one or both nodes. The takumbê is mainly used by the Banwaon, who probably adopted the instrument including its name, from the neighboring Agusan Manobo. The Banwaon play the instrument by plucking one string with the thumb of the hand that is holding it, while the other string is beaten with a stick held by the other hand, thus resulting in two different pitch levels. The impression of an additional underlying drone sound is achieved by regularly moving the instrument back and forth, thus closing and opening the resonating hole in the node with the belly. Through this technique, the vibration of the air inside the bamboo tube is influenced. The takumbê is also known in some Talaandig settlements, where it is beaten with only one stick while the player dances (Illus. 17).  There seems to have been a second type of idiochord tube zither called tangkul or kudlung among the Bukidnon in the past. These two names are rarely mentioned nowadays. The term tangkul is still relatively often used in song texts, i. e. in the ulagíng epic, as a synonym for takumbê. Accordingly, the instrument has four, five or six discreet strings around its body and a resonating slit reaching lengthwise almost from one end to the other. Thus, the instrument seems to resemble the saluray of the Matigsalug Manobo, which has six strings.  FLUTES are generally distinguished according to the construction of their mouthpieces. In this respect, the Bukidnon have three types of flutes, which are all made out of bamboo: one type of long flute and two types of short flutes that come in different varieties, depending on the arrangement of the fingerholes. All flutes have something in common: the position of their fingerholes is determined by using the circumference of the bamboo reed as a measuring unit; it depends on the type of flute how many times this measuring unit is copied to the reed and marked by scratched lines on the bamboo’s surface.  The long flute which the Bukidnon generally call pulalà (the Banwaon sometimes lumundeg) seems to be one of the instruments with the widest distribution in Mindanao with identical construction (Illus. 18, 19, 20). Termed “lip-valley flute” by José Maceda (1963, Vol. I: 135ff; 1971:25), the instrument has a mouthpiece made by cutting off the upper end of the bamboo reed diagonally so that it matches the shape of the flutist's lower lip; the blowing edge is formed by a second cut (Illus. 20). The length of the pulalà measures 14 units. Fingerholes are burned through the bamboo at units 7 (thumb), 8, 10 and 11 (fingers). Another Bukidnon flute with the same type of mouthpiece - though shorter and with different positions of fingerholes - is the rare hulakteb, which the writer has not seen in actual performance. One informant described it as having a length of 11 units with fingerholes at units 6 (thumb), 7, 8 and 9 (fingers).

Click on picture for full-sized view (51 kB) Illus. 18: Pulalà player. Salsalan, Tagbalili, Esperanza,  Agusan del Sur.

Click on picture for full-sized view (10 kB) Illus. 19: General view of the long flute pulalà.

Click on picture for full-sized view (27 kB)  Illus. 20: Mouthpiece of the lip valley flute pulalà.

 

Click on picture for full-sized view (35 kB) Illus. 21: Ring flute yangyang (kunsî). Guilang-Guilang, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon.

The “ring flute” (Maceda 1971:24f) has a mouthpiece which is made by cutting the upper end of a bamboo reed horizontally and leaving the node intact. This upper end is carved thinner so that a short bamboo tube can be attached onto it (Illus. 21 and Illus. 22). The flute is called kunsî (sometimes also yangyang) by the Bukidnon and Higaunen subgroups and daguyung (sometimes tuwali) by the Banwaon, the terms daguyung and tuwali being borrowed from the Agusan Manobo. The ring flute has a length of 6 units and fingerholes at units 3, 3½, 4 and 5 (no hole for the thumb).  The yangyang belongs to the type of flute termed “chip on ledge flute” by Maceda (1971:25). In the construction of its mouthpiece, the bamboo reed is cut horizontally, leaving the upper end open. This end is cut vertically and horizontally again, resulting in a protruding strip or “tongue” on which a small piece of bamboo is tied with a thread. The measurements as well as the positions of the fingerholes of this flute are identical to those of the kunsî given above.  The tumpuy is another type of “chip on ledge flute” with the same mouthpiece like the yangyang but smaller. The length of the flute, which can only be found among the Talaandig subgroup, measures only 4 units, with fingerholes at units 1½ (thumb), 2 and 3 (fingers).  Sometimes both types, the ring flute as well as the “chip on ledge flute”, are referred to as lantuy, a term which might be borrowed from the language of the Western Bukidnon Manobo (cp. Polenda 1989:140).

Click on picture for full-sized view (24 kB) Illus. 22: Ring flute daguyung of the Agusan Manobo From the top: Mouthpiece with and without attached bamboo ring, one fingerhole, lower end. Right: General view. (Collection Linda Burton)

Click on picture for full-sized view (45 kB) Illus. 23: Bamboo jaw's harp kebing. Claveria, Misamis Oriental.

The BAMBOO JAW’S HARP of the Bukidnon is usually called kulaing (Illus. 23). Among the Talaandig, the Maranao term kubing (kebing) is used, in the Higaunen area around Gingoog City, the term kuging. The instrument is of the same type as most jaw’s harps in the Philippines, an idiochord jaw’s harp with a tongue carved into two parts: the base, about two thirds of the tongue's length, is 8-10 mm wide, ending in a strip of 1 mm width comprising the last third of the tongue. For most of its length, the tongue is quite flat and thin; around the area where the abrupt transition from the wide base to the thin end is located, the tongue is carved considerably thicker to make it heavy enough to vibrate properly.  The musical instruments for individual use generally belong to the melody-producing instruments including, with some limitations, the jaw’s harp kulaing and the bamboo zither takumbê. The pentatonic melodies that are played on these instruments resemble those of Bukidnon vocal music. Some of them show a wide ambitus and extensive melodic movements in free rhythm, others consist of rather short melodic phrases which are constantly repeated to enhance their rhythmic qualities and which are only interrupted from time to time by inserted additional phrases. The latter description also applies to the patterns played on kulaing and takumbê where the rhythmic quality naturally prevails.

Click on picture for full-sized view (64 kB) Illus. 24: "Cradling dance” buwâ-buwâ, accompanied on a bamboo slit drum tagungtung. Guilang-Guilang, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon. Click on picture for full-sized view (30 kB) Illus. 25: Bamboo slit drum bantula. Songco, Lantapan, Bukidnon.

Musical Instruments for Social Use On the instruments used during social gatherings, only dance rhythms are played. Traditionally, the dance rhythms were mainly played by tapping with the bare hands on a mat (ikam; Illus. 29) or against the floor or the walls of a house. The accompaniment on musical instruments is therefore not necessary but usually done, depending on the presence of a gong (agung), a drum (gimbê or tambul) or a bamboo slit drum (bantula or tagungtung). The dance rhythms are simple repetitions of one rhythmic pattern which is sometimes combined with a second one, usually in medium tempo and consisting of combinations of quarter- and eighth-note values.  The BAMBOO SLIT DRUM is mostly called bantula, in some places of the Bukidnon subgroup tagungtung (Illus. 24 and Illus. 25). It is made out of a bamboo pole of wide diameter which remains closed at both ends by nodes. A slit is cut in the tube which is about 2-3 cm wide and reaches almost from one end of the tube to the other. The slit drum is beaten with two wooden sticks. The Banwaon use the slit drum which they call kuratung merely as an instrument for making signals or for scaring away wild animals from the fields. (Another picture of a Bukidnon man playing the bamboo slit drum can be seen by clicking here.)  The Bukidnon prefer small GONGS with narrow rims and with a boss (Illus. 3 and Illus. 6) but in practice, they use gongs of different shapes and sizes whatever kind of gong is available (Illus. 7 and Illus. 8). All these gongs are called agung. The small gongs are hung by a rope which is held with one hand by the player while the other hand beats on the boss with a padded mallet (Illus. 6). The Banwaon and Umayamnon sometimes hang a big agung in front of them and beat it usually with two blank, unpadded sticks on the rim (cp. Illus. 8), resulting in a high-pitched, metallic sound obviously considered the ideal gong sound for dancing in these areas.

Click on picture for full-sized view (50 kB) Illus. 26: Two-headed drum gimbal of the Mansaka (Collection of the Xavier University Museum)

Gongs are usually played alone. The Banwaon, on the other hand, seem to prefer playing the agung in combination with the drum gimbê (gimbal), which they probably adopted from the Agusan Manobo. Drums which are constructed in exactly the same way are used among several other ethnic groups in eastern Mindanao, including the Tboli, Blaan, Mandaya and Mansaka (Illus. 26). This drum is made from a log of wood whose length approximately matches its diameter. It is covered with skin at both ends but, as it is standing on the ground on one drum head, only one skin is beaten with two sticks.

Click on picture for full-sized view (51 kB) Illus. 27: Traditional costumes of the Bukidnon; man with headdress (sulang-sulang) of a war leader and two- headed drum tambul Freedom, Cabanglasan, Bukidnon. Also click here.

Among the Bukidnon and Talaandig subgroups, another drum is used which, as its name tambul and its construction suggest, is obviously influenced by Spanish military drums (Illus. 27). This influence is also evidenced by the way the tambul is played while hanging from the drummer’s shoulders at his waistline and beaten with two wooden unpadded sticks with carved heads. This drum is usually played alone, but the Talaandig sometimes also combine it with an agung for the accompaniment of dances.     Other Musical Instruments The dagingen, a HANGING TWO-BAR XYLOPHONE, neither belongs to the instruments for individual use nor to those for social use. It is a ritual instrument which is exclusively used during the important kaligà ceremonies (see above). It consists of two small and round wooden logs of about 40 cm length and 5 cm in diameter held by a frame of woven rattan strips in the shape of a horseshoe. The curved middle of the “horseshoe” serves as a handle when the instrument is carried around during the ceremony or hung beside the altar. On the dagingen, there is only one rhythm played, which is called kinulintang, a combination of two rhythmic two-tone patterns alternating with one another after each one has been repeated several times.

Click on picture for full-sized view (55 kB) Illus. 28: Shell trumpet budyung. Tagbalili, Esperanza, Bukidnon.

The SHELL TRUMPET budyung (by some Banwaon called lungga) is usually made out of a big shell of the species Cassis (Illus. 28). It is merely used as a signaling instrument to summon the inhabitants of a village for a meeting or to warn them of an approaching danger, but the way it is played with sustained tones of any length does not imply any musical function.    Dances and Dance Rhythms Among the dances (sayaw) as well as dance rhythms (basál), there are similarities in all the Bukidnon areas. However, the use of the same terms in different areas does not automatically imply that the dances referred to are identical in performance and meaning. But, at least, such concurrences in terminology indicate that these dances might be regional variations of the same musical culture.

Click on picture for full-sized view (60 kB) Illus. 29: "Hawk dance” binanug. The dance rhythm is beaten by the two old women in the foreground on a woven mat (ikam). Kiudto, Hagpa, Impasugong, Bukidnon.

Some dances are mimetic in nature, mostly depicting the movements of animals, like the binakbak (“frog dance”; Illus. 33), binanug (“hawk dance”; Illus. 29, Video 2), inamû (“monkey dance”; Illus. 32), tininggaw (“dance of the tinggaw bird”) or pinigkút (“cripple dance”). The inamû shows a monkey stealing honey and consequently being bitten by the bees; therefore, this dance is also referred to as pinatiyukan, lampatiyukan (“honey bee dance”) or pangalingut (“hunting for honey”); to the same dance rhythm, the Higaonon in Misamis Oriental perform a similar dance called binalbal (“like the evil spirit balbal”) which, accordingly, is sometimes accompanied by the one-string violin dayuray a rare exception of playing dance music on a melodic instrument among the Bukidnon groups. Other dances are named in accordance with the musical instruments on which the respective dance rhythms are played, like inagung (“gong dance”) and tinambul (“drum dance”). Basically, these last two dances are identical with the pig-agawan (“grabbing dance”), in which one or two men try to grab handkerchiefs from the hands of a woman, or one or two women from a man's hands (Illus. 30).

Click on icon for downloading Video 2: Performance of the binanug by three girls, accompanied on a bamboo slit drum bantula. Songco, Lantapan, Bukidnon. Excerpt of 32 seconds in REAL VIDEO format. File size: 875 kB.

Click on picture for full-sized view (64 kB) Illus. 30:  "Grabbing dance” pig-agawan. Iponan, Balungkud, Dansulihon, Misamis Oriental.

One dance rhythm follows the speech rhythm of the sentence “Akpas kaw tagdiyâ kuy en!” (“Hurry up, we will go there!”) and is referred to by this sentence as its name.  Of the ceremonial dances, the dugsû, the dance of the women during the kaligà ceremonies, has been described above. Aside from this dance, the Talaandig in some places perform the anahaw (“dance with leaves of the anahaw palm”, Latania laddigesii) during their annual community ceremony pangampû (cp. Illus. 6 and Illus. 7). The inahaw (Alejandro 1978:159; Goquingco 1980:146) seems to be a similar dance. In Agusan del Sur, a dance with ceremonial connotations but not necessarily connected with ceremony is the binaylan (“dance of the priest”), which the Banwaon adopted from the neighboring Agusan Manobo: one or two men dance dressed in skirts of women (Illus. 8 and Illus. 9). This peculiarity probably refers to the fact that priests among the Agusan Manobo, contrary to the Banwaon, are women. In a similar way to the Banwaon, some Bukidnon settlements south of Malaybalay adopted binaylan versions of the neighboring Umayamnon, which they call binaylan hu bahi (“binaylan of the woman”) and binaylan hu maama (“binaylan of the man”). The original Umayamnon name for the fast rhythm of these binaylan versions is banga-banga simbatang. The binaylan rhythms are usually played on a single agung (in Bukidnon) or on a combination of agung and drum gimbê (in Agusan).

Click on picture for full-sized view (23 kB) Illus. 31: Rattle kulung-kulung attached  to the upper end of the dance  spear bangkaw. Iponan, Balungkud, Dansulihon, Misamis Oriental.

Known throughout the Bukidnon area and in some Manobo areas as well is the saet or saut (“war dance”) using a spear (bangkaw) with a ring-shaped brass rattle (kulung-kulung; Illus. 31) attached to its upper end and a war shield (kalasag). This dance is performed either solo or in pairs, either without musical accompaniment or danced to the sound of agung and drum (gimbê or tambul) or drum alone. Obviously not a traditional Bukidnon dance is the rarely found sinulug (“dance of the Sulu people”). Among the Higaonon in Misamis Oriental, the term sinulug refers to a variety of the saet performed with sword and shield to the rhythm of a small agung. Among the Bukidnon subgroup south of Malaybalay, it refers to a group dance without obvious martial attitudes. The dances kinalasag (“dance with the kalasag shield”), sínagubayán (probably derived from the word mahubay, “slow”, thus meaning “slow dance”) and pigtebakan (“fighting dance”) of the Higaonon in Misamis Oriental also seem to be rare varieties of the saet; the kinalasag and sínagubayán rhythms are beaten with bare hands on the wooden kalasag shield, the pigtebakan rhythm is played on an agung.

Click on picture for full-sized view (26 kB) Illus. 31-A: Dancing the war dance saet with spear bangkaw and shield. kalasag. Guilang-Guilang, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon.

Click on picture for full-sized view (45 kB) Illus. 32: "Monkey dance” inamû,“honey  bee dance” pinatiyukan, etc. Guilang-Guilang, Manolo Fortich,  Bukidnon. Click on picture for full-sized view (55 kB) Illus. 33: "Frog dance” binakbak. Guilang-Guilang, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon.

Dances restricted to a few central Bukidnon settlements, some of which seem to be of recent origin, comprise the buwâ-buwâ (“cradling dance”; Illus. 24) depicting the rocking of a baby to sleep, iniskala (“happy dance”), salumpì (“mortar dance”), pinisi (“rope dance”), dalan-dalan (“walking behind each other in line”), kinindaan (“dance in the old style”) and pamugás (“rice planting dance”). The latter, similar to the dugsû, is danced by a group of women depicting the planting of rice by using planting sticks.  Similar to the dance rhythms but having a different function is the rhythm called bandû (“advice to take precautions”) of the Bukidnon subgroup south of Malaybalay which is played as a warning in situations of danger, i. e., if enemies are about to attack the area.     Closing Remarks Although the data presented here in the form of a descriptive ethnography suggest that traditional Bukidnon culture is a living culture, it has to be stressed that it is indeed in danger of dying out. At the time field work was conducted (above all in 1983-1985), Bukidnon singers, musicians and dancers who were still familiar with their musical traditions were almost exclusively older people of sixty to eighty years of age, and each of these informants specialized in just a small portion of his or her musical culture. Therefore, this presentation of Bukidnon musical culture as a living whole has to be seen already today as a mere reconstruction of the past. On the other side, traditional musical concepts affect the present-day life of the Bukidnon, and understanding them means the first essential in understanding modern Bukidnon concepts of musical activities.

Notes About the Sources The present paper is based on materials collected from 25 settlements in the provinces of Bukidnon, Misamis Oriental, Agusan del Sur and Agusan del Norte during four field trips in 1976/77, 1982/83, 1983/84 and 1985/86. Compared with the findings of other authors, the data presented here may show a number of minor contradictions which derive from regional differences or varying personal views of informants. These details were generally not included in this article to avoid confusing information.      Acknowledgements First of all, the author is indebted to his interpreters, Victorino Saway and Tranquilino Sitoy for providing him with comprehensive information and sharing their rich knowledge with him. Special thanks go to all his informants, with whom he feels he shares the same interest in wanting to preserve traditional Bukidnon culture, especially to the late José de la Mance (Datu Mampaanud), Teotimo Atla-oan (Datu Mambad-ayan), Anastacio Saway (Datu Kinulintang) and Angel Colero. Many other people helped in one or another way; there are too many names to mention them all here. However, the author still wants to express his thankfulness to Magdalena, Elfe and José Bosch and to Rex and Loretta Baquiran for their long-time hospitality.  Orthography Binukid language terms in this article are using a 19-letter alphabet: 15 consonant letters (<b>, <k>, <d>, <g>, <h>, <l>, <m>, <n>, <ng>, <p>, <r>, <s>, <t>, <w>, <y>) and 4 vowels (<a>, <e>, <i>, <u>). In addition, there is the glottal stop which is pronounced between two subsequent vowels, but which is usually not transcribed; only in ambiguous cases is the glottal stop indicated by hyphens as well as by accents as a final sound (see below). The consonant <ng> is pronounced like in the English word “singer”, <r> like in the Spanish word “pero”. The consonants <w> und <y> are semivowels which in combination with the subsequent vowels are pronounced as diphthongs: <w> similar as in the English word “wedding”, <y> similar as in “you”. The vowels <a>, <i> and <u> are pronounced similar to the Spanish vowels, while <e> represents the peppet sound which in other publications is often represented by <o>.  In this paper, accents are only given for Binukid terms: If there is no accent on the last syllable, it means that the penultimate syllable is stressed; an acute accent ´ indicates a stressed syllable, a grave accent ` on the final vowel indicates a final glottal stop and a stress on the penultimate syllable, a circumflex accent ^ on the final vowel indicates a final glottal stop together with a stress on the final syllable.   Materials for Further Reading Alejandro, Reynaldo G. 1978 Philippine Dance. Mainstream and Crosscurrents. [n. p.]: Vera-Reyes, Inc. Bayanihan Folk Arts Center 1987 Bayanihan. Manila: Bayanihan Folk Arts Center. Brandeis, Hans 1981 Zur Musik der Higa-onon am Libang-Fluß, Agusan del Sur, Mindanao, Philippinen. Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin (M. A., Ethnomusicology). Unpublished typescript. 1989 Competition and Guardian Spirits: Musical Behavior Among the Higaunen of Mindanao, Philippines. A paper read during the 30th Conference of the International Council for Traditional Music at Schladming, Austria, July 23-29, 1989. Unpublished typescript. 1992 “Religiöse Bezüge in der Vokalmusik der Bukidnon auf Mindanao, Philippinen.” In: Bröcker, Marianne (ed.): Berichte aus dem ICTM-Nationalkomitee Deutschland [Vol.] I Musik und Religion. Bericht über die Tagung des Nationalkomitees der Bundesrepublik Deutschland im International Council for Traditional Music (UNESCO) am 17. und 18. September 1990 in Bamberg. Edited by Marianne Bröcker. Bamberg: Universitätsbibliothek Bamberg. Pp. 7-24. 3 music examples on tape cassette. Cole, Fay-Cooper 1956 The Bukidnon of Mindanao. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History. Exconde, Gavina B. 1974 A Study of Some Bukidnon Folk Songs and Their Contribution to Music Education. Manila: Graduate School, Philippine Normal College (M. A., Education). Unpublished typescript. Garvan, John M. 1931 The Manóbos of Mindanáo. Washington D. C.: National Academy of Sciences. (Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 23. First Memoir.) Goquingco, Leonor Orosa 1980 The Dances of the Emerald Isles. A Great Philippine Heritage. Quezon City: Ben-Lor Publishers. Llamzon, Teodoro A. 1978 Handbook of Philippine Language Groups. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press (for UNESCO). Maceda, José Montserrat 1963 The Music of the Magindanao in the Philippines. 2 Volumes. Los Angeles: University of California (Ph. D., Ethnomusicology); Ann Arbor: University Microfilms. 1971 “Classification and Distribution of Musical Instruments in the Philippines.” In: Maceda, José Montserrat (ed.): The Music of Asia. Manila: National Music Council of the Philippines, UNESCO - National Commission of the Philippines. Pp. 24-37. Marbella, Hermelina Ching 1976 Some Fundamental Characteristics and Distinctive Features of Selected Central Bukidnon Dances. Cebu City: Cebu Normal College, Graduate School (M. A., education). Unpublished typescript. Obusan, Ramon A. 1988 The Cultural Center of the Philippines Presents the Unpublished Dances of the Philippines by The Ramon Obusan Folkloric Group. December 29-30, 1988. (Program notes.) 1990 Ballet National Folklorique de Philipinas. The Mysterious and Unknown Rituals of the Philippines. Europe Tour 1990. (Program notes.) Opeña, Ludivina Ravidas 1975 “The Bukidnon Folk Literature (Preliminary Study).” In: Demetrio, Francisco R. (ed.): Dialogue for Development. Cagayan de Oro City: Xavier University. Pp. 187- 275. 1979 “Olaging. The Battle of Nalandangan. A Bukid-non Folk-Epic.” In: Kinaadman. Cagayan de Oro City: Xavier University. Vol. 1, pp. 151-227. Polenda, Francisco Col-om 1989 A Voice from the Hills. Essays on the Culture and World View of the Western Bukidnon Manobo People. Translated and Edited by Richard E. Elkins. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines. (Special Monograph Issue. No. 29.) Unabia, Carmen Ching 1976 An Exploratory Study of the Bukidnon Folk Literature. Cagayan de Oro City: Xavier University (M. A., English). 4 Vols. Unpublished typescript. Villacruz, Basilio Esteban S. 1989 Sayaw. An Essay on Philippine Dance. Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines. Discography Only three recordings of Bukidnon music (Brandeis 1992) have been published up to now. Copies of about 110 hours of Bukidnon music from the Hans Brandeis collection are with the Department of Ethnomusicology, Museum for Ethnography Berlin, as well as with the archives of the Xavier Folklife Museum of Xavier University, Cagayan de Oro, and with the Department of Music Research, College of Music, University of the Philippines, Quezon City. The last institution additionally holds the collections of Minerva Mañalac and Juanite (Banwaon area; 1971 and 1974), Corazon Manuel (Talaandig area; 1969) and Cynthia Neri Zayas (Higaunen area; 1973-1974).

About the Author Hans Brandeis studied ethnomusicology, anthropology and psychology at the Free University Berlin. In the course of twelve trips to the Philippines, starting in 1976 and totalling more than three years, he has conducted intensive fieldwork among the minority groups of the island of Mindanao. He wrote his M. A. thesis on the music culture of the Higaonon in Agusan del Sur province. He has worked for the International Institute for Traditional Music, the Ethnological Museum and the Verlag Neue Musik, a music publishing house, in Berlin. For the Filipino Association of Berlin, he conducted a project dealing with the documentation of Philippine culture. He was also author of many radio programs, most of which deal with traditional music in the Philippines. He is now working as a free-lancing ethnomusicologist, musician and sound engineer, while continuing his research trips to the Philippines. His present research activities mainly focus on the boat lutes, the most sophisticated musical instruments of the Philippine Islands, which can be found in many designs and sizes among at least 33 ethnic groups. As a member of world music duo Flute & Voice, as guitarist, sitar player and singer, Hans Brandeis has released several record albums, as a classical singer (tenor), he continues to perform during lieder recitals and concerts in the Berlin area. Fur further information about the activities of Hans Brandeis click HERE.

Contact Address: Hans Brandeis  Pascalstraße 5  D-10587 Berlin  Germany  E-Mail: brandeis[.at.]arcor.de

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Page maintained and designed by Hans Brandeis, Berlin, Germany. Copyright © 1996-2007 by Hans Brandeis. All rights reserved. Alle Rechte vorbehalten. For comments, please send an e-mail to brandeis[.at.]arcor.de The first HTML version of this document was created by APSIS Editor Johann Stockinger on September 23, 1995. Redesigned and updated by Hans Brandeis on March 8, 1999 Updated: Monday, November 26, 2007

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