Sri Lanka
I. Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, island republic in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of India, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar. Lying between the two nations is a chain of tiny islands known as Adam’s Bridge. Sri Lanka is somewhat pear-shaped, with its apex in the north. The greatest length from north to south is 440 km (270 mi); the greatest width is 220 km (about 140 mi). The total area of Sri Lanka is 65,610 sq km (25,332 sq mi). The administrative capital of Sri Lanka is Sri Jayawardenepura (Kotte), and Colombo is the commercial capital and largest city.
Sri Lanka’s coast, particularly the west, south, and southeast, is palm-fringed and indented by lagoons and inlets.The more rugged northeastern coast contains Trincomalee Harbor, considered one of the best natural harbors in the world. On the southwestern coast other harbors include the largely artificial one at Colombo and one at Galle.
II. Land and Resources
An outstanding feature of the topography of Sri Lanka is a mountainous mass in the south central part of the country, the highest point of which is the peak of Pidurutalagala (2,524 m/ 8,281 ft). In the upland area are two plateaus, Nuwara Eliya and Horton Plains, which are major centers of commercial tea plantations. The plateaus are noted for their cool, healthful climate. North of the mountains, and extending south, is an arid and gently rolling plain known as the dry zone.
Rivers and streams that are broken by rapids are especially numerous in the mountainous south central region. The longest river is the Mahaweli Ganga, which empties into the Indian Ocean south of Trincomalee. Other rivers include the Kelani, the mouth of which is near Colombo; the Kalu, which reaches the sea near Kalutara on the southwestern coast; and the Aruvi Aru, which flows northwest across the dry zone to a point near Mannar.
a. Climate
Because Sri Lanka is situated near the equator, the climate is generally hot and humid. The hill and mountain areas, however, are cool, and the humidity is relatively lower in the dry zone. The average annual temperature is about 32°C (about 90°F) in the lowlands and about 21°C (about 70°F) in the higher mountainous regions.
Precipitation is characterized by wide seasonal and regional variations. The monsoon season in the southwest is from May to November, at which time the rainfall is exceptionally heavy. In the northern dry zone the main precipitation of about 1,020 mm (about 40 in) annually occurs during the monsoon season, which begins in the first week of November. Most crops in the dry zone, however, require irrigation. The hills and the lowlands of the southwestern section, which is known as the wet zone, normally have some rainfall throughout the year, but peaks occur in May and June and in October and November.
Natural Resources
The natural resources of Sri Lanka are chiefly agricultural, but most of the land is not easily cultivated. The mineral deposits of the country are limited.
c. Plants and Animals
Sri Lanka is noted for the beauty and variety of its vegetation. Dense tropical jungles occupy extensive areas in the southwest, and the upper mountain slopes are thickly forested. Many varieties of palm, including the areca, coconut, and palmyra, flourish in the lowlands along the coast. Mangroves and screw pines abound in coastal areas. Numerous varieties of timber trees, notably mahogany and many species of resin-yielding fruit trees, are indigenous to the wet zone. Among the timber trees that are common in the drier sections of the island are ebony and satinwood. Ferns, water hyacinths, orchids, acacias, eucalyptus trees, and cypresses flourish in various regions.
The animal life of Sri Lanka is diverse and includes many species that may be in danger of extinction, such as the cheetah, leopard, several species of monkey, and elephant. The island also contains numerous species of birds and reptiles.
d. Environmental Issues
Population pressures threaten Sri Lanka’s forests and wildlife. As a result, only 30 percent (2000) of Sri Lanka’s total land area is forested. Large areas of forest have been cut down for fuelwood or for timber export and have been replaced by farms. This deforestation has led to loss of wildlife habitats and to increased soil erosion and degradation. A number of threatened species continue to be hunted illegally by poachers. The island’s coastal ecosystems suffer from pollution caused by mining activities and the tourist trade, and freshwater resources are being contaminated by industrial waste and sewage runoff. Much of Sri Lanka’s mangrove forest, an important coastal habitat, has been cut down to make way for farmland and fish cultivation ponds.
The government of Sri Lanka has taken action to conserve wildlife, however. Nearly 13.3 percent (1997) of the land is protected. The Sinharaja Forest Reserve, which protects the largest remaining stand of primary rain forest on the island, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1988. The government has ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to climate change, desertification, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, law of the sea, ozone layer protection, and wetlands.
III. Population
About 74 percent of the population of Sri Lanka is of Sinhalese descent. The largest minority groups are the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils, which together account for about 18 percent of the population. The remaining population includes the descendants of Moors (Arabs), Burghers (Dutch), Malays, and Veddas.
a.Principal Cities
Only 24 percent of Sri Lanka’s population lives in urban communities. Colombo is the largest city. Most of the foreign trade of the island is routed through its commercial capital Colombo, and the city has been an important fueling station for ships that pass through the Suez Canal. Other important urban areas are the rapidly expanding suburb of Colombo, Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia; the seaport of Jaffna; Sri Jayawardenepura, the administrative capital; the ancient capital city of Kandy; and the tea-producing community of Galle.
b. Language
The official languages of Sri Lanka are Sinhala, or Sinhalese, and Tamil. Sinhala is spoken by 74 percent of the population. Tamil, a Dravidian language of southern India, is spoken by people living in the northern and eastern provinces. English, the official language of the country until 1957, is still widely used.
c. Religion
Buddhism, which was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 3rd century bc, is the prevailing religious faith. As practised in Sri Lanka, Buddhism exhibits elements of both the Hindu and Islamic traditions. About 69 percent of the population is Buddhist, 15 percent is Hindu, 8 percent is Christian, and 8 percent is Muslim.
IV. Education and Culture
In Sri Lanka schooling is compulsory for children from 5 to 14 years of age, and it is free at all levels. In 1996 Sri Lanka had 9,554 elementary schools, of which most were government institutions. There are about 30 technical institutions and 9 universities. The University of Sri Jayewardenepura in Colombo, founded as the University of Ceylon in 1942 and renamed in 1978, is one of the country’s major institutions of higher education.
Religion plays an important role in Sri Lanka; a revival of Buddhism was associated with the rise of Sinhalese nationalism. Most public holidays are based on religious festivals. The annual torchlight temple procession, or Perahara, in which ornamentally covered elephants and hundreds of dancers participate, draws thousands of devotees. Pilgrimages also play an important role here. The most important pilgrimage is to the top of Adams Peak. Muslims believe that Adam and Eve lived here after they left the Garden of Eden. Buddhists visit a rock on the peak that they believe contains one of Buddha’s footprints. Another important pilgrimage is to the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, where it is believed that one of Buddha’s teeth is enshrined. Sinhalese society, although Buddhist, is stratified along caste lines. Ceylon Tamil society reproduces the caste features found in India, although in modified form. The Colombo National Museum Library (1870), incorporating the collection of the Government Oriental Library, is the largest in Sri Lanka. The oldest library is the Department of National Archives in Colombo, which contains the official records of the Dutch Administration from 1640 to 1796, the British Administration from 1796 to 1948, and the independent nation from 1948 to the present. Middle Stone Age implements such as bones and grinding stones have been unearthed in the Bandarawela region in the south; some late Stone Age tools of ground quartz were discovered nearby. Early Buddhist pottery and iron artifacts have been found throughout the country. Hindu burial relics dating from the 3rd century bc have been discovered in the North Western Province. The National Museums of Sri Lanka, with branches located in Colombo, Kandy, Ratnapura, Anuradhapura, Galle, and Trincomalee, contain collections of archaeological finds and historical documents of the country.
Sri Lanka’s economy is predominantly based on agriculture. Most of the people are subsistence farmers, who make a living by growing rice on their small plots. A large export trade in tea, rubber, and coconuts is the dominant commercial activity; most businesses engaged in producing these goods were nationalized in the middle and late 1970s. The government also controlled banking and insurance, as well as mining and the manufacture of such basic goods as fertilizers, textiles, cement, and petroleum. Consumer goods manufacturing and retail businesses remained in private hands. In the late 1970s the government launched a new program to accelerate economic growth that included the elimination of various state monopolies to allow for more private-sector competition; in the mid-1980s the government sought to promote foreign investment in export-oriented industries. Beginning in the late 1980s ethnic violence strained Sri Lanka’s economy. Renewed attempts to privatize the economy, particularly the agricultural industry, began in the 1990s.
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Religion plays an important role in Sri Lanka; a revival of Buddhism was associated with the rise of Sinhalese nationalism. Most public holidays are based on religious festivals. The annual torchlight temple procession, or Perahara, in which ornamentally covered elephants and hundreds of dancers participate, draws thousands of devotees. Pilgrimages also play an important role here. The most important pilgrimage is to the top of Adams Peak. Muslims believe that Adam and Eve lived here after they left the Garden of Eden. Buddhists visit a rock on the peak that they believe contains one of Buddha’s footprints. Another important pilgrimage is to the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, where it is believed that one of Buddha’s teeth is enshrined. Sinhalese society, although Buddhist, is stratified along caste lines. Ceylon Tamil society reproduces the caste features found in India, although in modified form. The Colombo National Museum Library (1870), incorporating the collection of the Government Oriental Library, is the largest in Sri Lanka. The oldest library is the Department of National Archives in Colombo, which contains the official records of the Dutch Administration from 1640 to 1796, the British Administration from 1796 to 1948, and the independent nation from 1948 to the present. Middle Stone Age implements such as bones and grinding stones have been unearthed in the Bandarawela region in the south; some late Stone Age tools of ground quartz were discovered nearby. Early Buddhist pottery and iron artifacts have been found throughout the country. Hindu burial relics dating from the 3rd century bc have been discovered in the North Western Province. The National Museums of Sri Lanka, with branches located in Colombo, Kandy, Ratnapura, Anuradhapura, Galle, and Trincomalee, contain collections of archaeological finds and historical documents of the country.
V Economy
Sri Lanka’s economy is predominantly based on agriculture. Most of the people are subsistence farmers, who make a living by growing rice on their small plots. A large export trade in tea, rubber, and coconuts is the dominant commercial activity; most businesses engaged in producing these goods were nationalized in the middle and late 1970s. The government also controlled banking and insurance, as well as mining and the manufacture of such basic goods as fertilizers, textiles, cement, and petroleum. Consumer goods manufacturing and retail businesses remained in private hands. In the late 1970s the government launched a new program to accelerate economic growth that included the elimination of various state monopolies to allow for more private-sector competition; in the mid-1980s the government sought to promote foreign investment in export-oriented industries. Beginning in the late 1980s ethnic violence strained Sri Lanka’s economy. Renewed attempts to privatize the economy, particularly the agricultural industry, began in the 1990s.
A Agriculture
Some 14 percent of Sri Lanka’s land area is under cultivation. Tea accounts for about one-fourth of the country’s export earnings. Tea, rubber, and coconuts together made up nearly 35 percent of Sri Lanka’s export earnings in the early 1990s.
Rice is the basic food of the people and the island’s principal crop. More acreage is devoted to the cultivation of rice than to any other crop; the output in 2001 was 2.8 million metric tons. Vegetables are grown in small amounts and are mostly cultivated for private consumption. Considerable quantities of sugar, wheat, and rice are imported.
Animal husbandry is of comparatively little importance to the economy of Sri Lanka. Cattle, buffaloes, goats, chickens, pigs, and sheep are raised.
B Forestry and Fishing
Local timber needs are satisfied by government-owned woodlands. The timber harvest in 2000 was 10.3 million cu m (365 million cu ft); most of the harvested wood was used for fuel. The fishing industry is restricted to a small coastal fringe and contributes relatively little to the national economy; the catch in 1997 was 247,000 metric tons.
C Mining
Although mineral resources are generally limited, Sri Lanka is an important source of high-grade lump amorphous graphite, used in the manufacture of carbon brushes for electric motors. Ilmenite, rutile, and zircon are also mined for commercial uses. Limestone is mined for a government-owned cement factory at Jaffna. Other minerals include salt, mica, kaolin (a fine clay), glass sands, and precious and semiprecious stones.
D Manufacturing
Manufacturing is relatively limited in Sri Lanka, and in 2000 it accounted for only 17 percent of the country’s gross domestic product. The more important industrial enterprises, most of which are entirely or partly government owned, produce goods such as steel, tires, cement, textiles, clothing, sugar, cigarettes, paper and leather goods, electronic equipment, refined petroleum, chemicals, ceramics, and processed food.
E Energy
In 1999 Sri Lanka produced 6 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. The largest share of the power, 70 percent, was produced by hydroelectric facilities.
F Currency and Foreign Trade
The Sri Lankan rupee, consisting of 100 cents, is the monetary unit (77 rupees equal U.S.$1; 2000 average). Imports in 2000 cost $6.8 billion and exports earned $5.1 billion. The chief exports were tea, rubber, coconut products, clothing, graphite, petroleum products, and precious and semiprecious stones. Foodstuffs, mainly rice, flour, and sugar, make up a significant share of imports. Other imports include petroleum products, machinery, building materials, textiles, and transportation equipment. Leading purchasers of Sri Lanka’s exports are the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, and Belgium; chief sources of imports are India, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.
G Transportation
A network of 96,695 km (60,083 mi) of roads connects most regions of the island; the best-developed road system is that in the plantation areas. Operated railroad track totals 1,447 km (899 mi).
Sri Lanka has three international airports. The government-owned airline, Air Lanka, provides domestic and international service.
H Communications
All electronic communications in Sri Lanka are government controlled. The country has 9 daily newspapers with a combined daily circulation of 530,000. In the late 1990s the largest daily was the Dinamina, published in Colombo. Sri Lanka has 41 telephone mainlines, 211 radio receivers, and 84 television sets for every 1,000 inhabitants. Television broadcasting began in Colombo in 1979.
I Labor
In 2000 some 8.5 million Sri Lankans were economically active, mostly unskilled workers. About one-third of all workers were organized in some 1,500 trade unions. Progressive labor legislation has been enacted, covering minimum wage, health, and welfare, but enforcement has proven difficult because of staff shortages.
Some 14 percent of Sri Lanka’s land area is under cultivation. Tea accounts for about one-fourth of the country’s export earnings. Tea, rubber, and coconuts together made up nearly 35 percent of Sri Lanka’s export earnings in the early 1990s.
Rice is the basic food of the people and the island’s principal crop. More acreage is devoted to the cultivation of rice than to any other crop; the output in 2001 was 2.8 million metric tons. Vegetables are grown in small amounts and are mostly cultivated for private consumption. Considerable quantities of sugar, wheat, and rice are imported.
Animal husbandry is of comparatively little importance to the economy of Sri Lanka. Cattle, buffaloes, goats, chickens, pigs, and sheep are raised.
B Forestry and Fishing
Local timber needs are satisfied by government-owned woodlands. The timber harvest in 2000 was 10.3 million cu m (365 million cu ft); most of the harvested wood was used for fuel. The fishing industry is restricted to a small coastal fringe and contributes relatively little to the national economy; the catch in 1997 was 247,000 metric tons.
C Mining
Although mineral resources are generally limited, Sri Lanka is an important source of high-grade lump amorphous graphite, used in the manufacture of carbon brushes for electric motors. Ilmenite, rutile, and zircon are also mined for commercial uses. Limestone is mined for a government-owned cement factory at Jaffna. Other minerals include salt, mica, kaolin (a fine clay), glass sands, and precious and semiprecious stones.
D Manufacturing
Manufacturing is relatively limited in Sri Lanka, and in 2000 it accounted for only 17 percent of the country’s gross domestic product. The more important industrial enterprises, most of which are entirely or partly government owned, produce goods such as steel, tires, cement, textiles, clothing, sugar, cigarettes, paper and leather goods, electronic equipment, refined petroleum, chemicals, ceramics, and processed food.
E Energy
In 1999 Sri Lanka produced 6 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. The largest share of the power, 70 percent, was produced by hydroelectric facilities.
F Currency and Foreign Trade
The Sri Lankan rupee, consisting of 100 cents, is the monetary unit (77 rupees equal U.S.$1; 2000 average). Imports in 2000 cost $6.8 billion and exports earned $5.1 billion. The chief exports were tea, rubber, coconut products, clothing, graphite, petroleum products, and precious and semiprecious stones. Foodstuffs, mainly rice, flour, and sugar, make up a significant share of imports. Other imports include petroleum products, machinery, building materials, textiles, and transportation equipment. Leading purchasers of Sri Lanka’s exports are the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, and Belgium; chief sources of imports are India, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.
G Transportation
A network of 96,695 km (60,083 mi) of roads connects most regions of the island; the best-developed road system is that in the plantation areas. Operated railroad track totals 1,447 km (899 mi).
Sri Lanka has three international airports. The government-owned airline, Air Lanka, provides domestic and international service.
H Communications
All electronic communications in Sri Lanka are government controlled. The country has 9 daily newspapers with a combined daily circulation of 530,000. In the late 1990s the largest daily was the Dinamina, published in Colombo. Sri Lanka has 41 telephone mainlines, 211 radio receivers, and 84 television sets for every 1,000 inhabitants. Television broadcasting began in Colombo in 1979.
I Labor
In 2000 some 8.5 million Sri Lankans were economically active, mostly unskilled workers. About one-third of all workers were organized in some 1,500 trade unions. Progressive labor legislation has been enacted, covering minimum wage, health, and welfare, but enforcement has proven difficult because of staff shortages.
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